نشریه علم زبان
پیاپی 13 (بهار و تابستان 1400)

Agreement can be known as the phenomenon by which a word takes morphological features that originate somewhere else, i.e., a situation in which a target form has grammatical marking that is controlled by a controller. On the other hand, cross-referencing (when a verb is marked) is often used in the pro-drop languages as a mechanism through which a verb is marked by bound elements in order to express its arguments. This kind of verb on its own suffices to represent its arguments, as it is inflectionally rich. Since Persian, as a pro-drop language, has the above-mentioned features, we can logically apply the term cross-referencing to Persian. But, it seems this term has not technically and comprehensively been investigated in this usage in Persian, and instead, agreement is usually used in this case. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate: Can cross-referencing be used for the typological situation of the Persian verbal agreement system? What are the components of the Persian cross-referencing framework? Can a technical field be proposed for cross-referencing in Persian? To do this, analyzing 43 standard colloquial Persian scenarios, this research characterized the components of the Persian cross-referencing framework, and introduced a technical field for the mentioned term based on typological approach according to Siewierska & Bakker (2005), and Corbett (2006). Besides, to select between agreement and cross-referencing, the study offered a two-way continuum.

The present paper aimed at discussing the possibility of formalizing the sense relation of hyponymy. In order to do so, the research applied mathematical tools borrowed from set theory and algebra. Firstly, it went over the definitions of the sense relation in question presented in linguistic dictionaries and also semantics’ text books. The definitions show that hyponymy between two words might be based on type, time or both. That is an important feature of hyponymy which the present research takes into account while trying to introduce a formal translation. Next, the paper presented a formal expression corresponding the sense relation of hyponymy, mostly using the fundamental concepts from set theory such a subset, conjunction, disjunction, etc. Finally, the efficiency and correctness of the introduced formal translations were examined using some examples of natural language which is Farsi in this case. The expression proved to be consistent with what we expect according to the way hyponymy works in natural language.

As you know, in typology, languages are categorized on the basis of morphological, syntactic, and semantic features. These categories help linguistics to introduce language universals. This article aims to determine the word order typology in Standard Arabic. Standard Arabic is the standardized and literary variety of Arabic used in writing and in most formal speech throughout the Arab world. The results of the article are of importance in teaching Persian to Arab students. In this article, word-order of the Standard Arabic is analyzed on the basis of the 25 typological correlations (Dryer 1992 and Dabirmoghaddam 2014). The results suggest that Standard Arabic, in comparison to African, Eurasia languages and other languages, which Dryer indicated them in his article, has 20, 22 and 23 correlations of strong VO languages; and also, has 12, 8 and 8 correlations of strong OV languages. Thus, Standard Arabic has a tendency towards strong VO languages.

Prepositions play an important role in the meaning of Persian sentences and in teaching/ learning this language, one of the most difficult points is the discussion of prepositions. In second language learning, these letters are in the last category of categories that language learners learn. Therefore, it is necessary for Persian language textbooks to pay special attention to teaching these letters. The purpose of this study is to study the Persian-to-Persian teaching set from the perspective of teaching these letters in order to study the teaching methods, the number of additional letters taught and the frequency of their occurrence. The reason for choosing this collection is its versatility and wide range of users. The results of the research indicate that the teaching method of these letters is traditional, educational and in some cases inductive/ implicit and the learners should learn them through the examples provided or reading the texts and through exploratory. Of the 89 simple and compound/ group suffixes used, the most frequent occurrence of those letters is 'to, to, in, from, with and for.' Using appropriate images for teaching, not using intermediate language, using input reinforcement technique, pointing out the consonance of some verbs with special prepositions of strengths and not referring to the pronunciation of prepositions, using only inductive and footnote methods- Disorders are one of the weaknesses of this collection. The results of the present study can be used by the authors of such books.

Undoubtedly, the use of modern linguistic theories for the analysis of religious texts can pave the way for a better understanding of such texts. Among the new theories, which today have a special place and wide application in text analysis and other linguistic areas, is Systemic Functional Grammar (SFG) of Halliday and Matthiessen (2014). According to this theory, the structure of language is influenced by the functions that language plays in the communication context and in the outside world, and this effect is manifested in the form of three broad metafunctions: ideational, interpersonal and textual. Since the emphasis of interpersonal metafunction is on the way of exchanging meaning between the speaker and the audience, its application in the analysis of religious texts, while making a better understanding of such texts, can be an appropriate benchmark for assessing the ability to generalize this theory. Therefore, using a descriptive-analytical method in terms of the Systematic Functional approach of Halliday and Matthiessen (2014), the present study aims to analyze one of the most famous sermons of Nahj al-Balagha, i.e. Shaqshaqiya Sermon. The main results of the research show that, despite the dominant frequency of indicative mood, Imam Ali (AS) throughout this sermon has somehow acted in the exchange and transfer of meaning as if both sides of the interaction engage in the construction of the text, thus avoiding any kind of one-sidedness and unilateral. Moreover, since the sermon has been delivered by the motive and the purpose of establishing the right of the caliphate by Commander of the Faithful Imam Ali, while at the same time, Imam does not use the Inshai terms for persuasion of the audience in addressing the audience in the sermon, the reason for this can be that Imam was so certain of his rightfulness and position as to the caliphate that he merely has used the indicative mood and he did not even need to use such terms to prove such a right.

Khorramabad Lori language is one of the languages of southwest of Iran and like other languages it has its own grammatical and typological features. Today, because of the effect of Persian on Lori, as an endangered language, it goes to disappear and this requires linguistic analysis of this topic with the goal of formulating the grammatical rules governing that. Thus, this article addresses the components of word order in this language. The method includes preparing a questionnaire, interviewing with native speakers, transcribing the gathered data and typological analysis of this language. In order to analyze data, the order and sequence of words were tested in according to components of Dryer’s word order pattern by providing dialectic samples. The investigations reveal that for example adposition comes in the form of preposition; and relative clause, noun, attributive verb, verb and main verb come after nominal head, genitive, predicate, adverb of manner and auxiliary verb respectively. At result, tendency of this language is on strong verb initial. Also, this language acts like Persian in terms of the component of word order.

Following Talmy’s classification of world languages in to two-category of verb-framed (V-language) and satellite-framed (S-language) that distinguishes between languages in terms of their encoding patterns of motion events, there has been a lot of investigations on different lexicalization patterns of motion events across spoken languages over the past decades. This paper examines how Persian native speakers lexicalize motion events and what pattern of spatial encoding they follow. To this end, 25 Persian native speakers were asked to watch 12 short animated cartoons representing voluntary motion carried out in vertical and trajectory direction. After recording and transcribing of the participants’ utterances, the analysis of responses indicated that Persian speakers encode manner information mainly in other linguistic means, and they are more willing to describe path of motion in satellites. Based on this pattern of spatial encoding, Persian speakers follow a mixed typology to encode motion events and Persian is categorized in both S- framed and V-framed typologies.

A resumptive pronoun is a pronoun appearing in a relative clause, which restates the antecedent. The use of resumptive pronouns in relative clauses appears to be governed by structural complexity in grammar and usage. Hawkins’s (2004) Efficiency and complexity in grammars predicts a parallel effect in usage: when the grammar permits the option of either resumptive pronoun or gap, resumptive pronouns should be used more often as structural complexity increases. By the results of four experiments including processing assessment, production task, an acceptability judgement task and listening experiment, the relation of relative clauses’ weight and the presence of a resumptive pronoun with an objective antecedent or lack of it is verified. The hypothesis was that with the increase of grammatical weight of relative clause, the need for a resumptive pronoun will be more. Finally, the results of four experiments are analyzed by SPSS software. The results which were based on the hypothesis, were not meaningful. It means that the presence or absence of resumptive pronoun in different grammatical weights does not make a meaningful difference. It means Persian speakers use lots of resumptive pronouns without attention to grammatical weights of relative clause.

Abstract or unexpressed pronoun in Pro-drop languages  refers to a linguistic element having a syntactic function with no phonetic representation. These kinds of languages are divided in different varieties. This article, in the first level,  tries to mention the properties of pro-drop languages  and at the second one, tries to compare and survey Mazandarani based on pro-drop language division done by Rizzi (1982) to see that in which group, it can be placed. As a whole, the structure of all pro-drop languages can be divided into four groups; 1. Fixed pro-drop languages like Italian, Greek and Persian; 2. Expletive (Null filler) pro-drop languages such as German, some kinds of Dutch and African languages; 3. Relative pro-drop languages as Hebrew, Russian, Marathi, and Brazilian Portuguese; 4. Discourse pro-drop languages like Chinese, Japanese and Korean. With the comparison of Mazandarani to the properties of pro-drop languages, we come to the conclusion that this language belongs to the category of consistent pro-drop languages. Meanwhile, it can be categorized in discourse pro-drop languages as well, because the co-indexation of covert pronoun and the subject of matrix sentence depends on the discourse context.

Despite the importance of neologism during the children's language development as their first attempt to apply the “creative” feature of the language, it has been so far neglected in researches. The aim of the present study is to investigate an infrequent kind of neologism in children, emphasizing the nature of language-related arousal. The method was descriptive-analytic, and the data were collected assisted by mothers, from the spontaneous speech of 8 children from the age of 20 months to 4 years old, during more than one year survey. Finding shows that not only arousal may effectuate the production of iconic non-words and onomatopoeia, but the phonotactic rules of the mother language in the child's non-words can also be violated under the influence of linguistic arousal. Furthermore, from the cognitive viewpoint, the more complicated concepts shape the more complicated phonological forms. Since this type of neologism has an entirely innovative morphology of coinage, they lack root and derivational morphemes, however sometimes children use them as the base of a compound verb.

The translation of literary works and texts as one of the most difficult and controversial types of translation has always been the subject of discussion and study of linguists in the world. So that in most of the books related to translation theory, translation of literature and its features have been translated separately. For this reason, the present paper tries to examine the existing approaches to authenticity and improve translation of literature by examining the views of a number of translation theories. Then, using the proposed methods and methods proposed by the specialists, translation of one of the works of Russian literature in Persian is studied to exactly determine and show how to use translation theories in translation of literature and literary works.

The use of metaphor as a linguistic strategy has long been considered by politicians around the world. The main purpose of the present study is to investigate the function of conceptual metaphor from the perspective of Lakoff and Johnson (1980) in the speeches of three members of the Government of prudence and hope: Mr. Rouhani, Jahangiri and Zarif. The main issue of the research is to show how conceptual metaphors are expressed in the words of these political authorities and how their function in organizing political realities can be explained. For this purpose, we have collected the data in a library research method and examined it analytically. The results indicate that political metaphors are used in different source domains: route, personification (humans, animals and plants), war, sports, buildings and natural phenomena, among which, the route is the most And the natural phenomena has had the least use. The results show that metaphor has an important rhetorical and persuasive usage in political discourse and plays an important role in conveying the political messages of prudence and hope government’s members. What is clear is that metaphor, in addition to facilitating the analysis of political issues for the audience, has given these politicians the opportunity to more easily explain their issues in order to arouse the audience's emotions. With the help of  metaphor, they try to highlight or hide some aspects of political discourse so that they can persuade the audience to apply their beliefs. It should be said that conceptual metaphors with different appearances have been manifested in line with the purposes of the government of Prudence and Hope discourse, called Moderation discourse. Thus, metaphors can be used by journalists, political analysts, and political discourse researchers as an effective and powerful tool to analyze the messages of political officials and facilitate the decoding of their words. Therefore, the results of this study can be useful for this group of experts and ultimately to measure the political pulse of the country.